Method of synthesis of AgNPs | Type of virus | Characterization | Shape | Size | Viral model | Assays/ Evaluation parameters | MOA | Doses | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Biological synthesis using fungi | Herpes Simplex Virus & Human Parainfluenza Virus Type 3 | TEM, UV–Vis, zeta potential | Spherical | 46 nm and 40 nm | VERO cells | MTT assay, cotreatment assay, cell pretreatment assay, cell post-treatment assay, Virus pretreatment assay | Inhibits viral replication | ID50-10 mg/mL, | [115] |
Biological synthesis using seaweeds | HSV-1 and HSV-2 | UV–Vis, FTIR, XRD, TEM, | Spherical | 8-27 nm | Vero cells | Cytotoxic assay, antiviral assay | Cytotoxic | ID50-2.5 μL | |
Biological synthesis using Bacteria (Bacillus species) | Bean Yellow Mosaic Virus | UV–VIS, EDX, TEM, DLS, FTIR | Triangular, Hexagonal and Spherical | 77–92 nm | Seeds of Vicia faba | RT-PCR, ELIZA | Inhibit the growth of virus | – | [126] |
Biological synthesis (Bio-reduction) | Bombyx mori Nuclear Polyhedrosis virus (BmNPV) | HR-SEM, EDAX, TEM, AFM CM | Hexahedron | 0.87–1.2 µm | Silkworm (Bombyx mori) | SDS-PAGE analysis, Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis | Interact with cell membrane of virus | – | [127] |
Chemical synthesis (citrate-stabilized AgNPs) | Feline Calicivirus | SEM, Mass spectroscopy, DLS, | Spherical | 10, 75, and 110 nm | FCV strain 2280 (ATCC-VR-2057) and Crandell-Rees feline kidney (CRFK) cells | Infectivity assay, Western blot analysis, Cytotoxic assay, SDS-PAGE analysis, | Cytotoxic, viricidal | 25, 50, & 100 lg/ mL | [113] |
Chemical synthesis (non-surface capped AgNPs) | Vaccinia virus | TEM, XRD | Spherical | 25 nm ± 10 nm, | VERO 76, BS-C-1, HeLa | Plaque Assay, VACV Adsorption Plaque Assay, Beta-Galactosidase Assay, Viral Entry Assay, VACV Adsorption Confocal Assay, MTT Assay, Dextran Uptake Assay, Western Blot | Macropinocytosis, interferes the entry | 27.4 ± 3.3 µg/ml | [128] |
Chemical synthesis—Polyol method (PVP-coated AgNPs), carbon-coated AgNPs, bovine-serum AgNPs | HIV-1 | TEM, STEM, UV–Vis, EDS, | Spherical | PVP-coated- 6.53 nm Carbon-coated- 16.19 nm Bovine-serum AgNPs- 2.08 nm | MT-2, cMAGI HIV-1 cells | Inhibition of HIV-1 with AgNPs analysis | Interact with the glycoprotein of virus, | 25 µg/mL | [107] |
Chemical synthesis using Tannic acid | Adeno virus type 3 | TEM | Hexahedron | 70-90 nm | HeLa cells | Cytotoxicity test, MTT assay, immunofluorescence analysis, RT-PCR | Interact with DNA, | 9.3 µg/mL | [108] |
Chemical synthesis using citrate, PVP, H2O2 | bovine herpesvirus-1 | TEM, UV–Vis, zeta-sizer, | Spherical | 20–25 nm | MDBK cells | Cytotoxicity assay, colorimetric-based assay, Anti-BoHV-1 effect of Ag-NPs, cytopathic effects analysis, | Attach to glycoprotein and inhibit viral normal functioning | 24 µg/mL | |
Chemical synthesis (uncoated and polysaccharide coated AgNPs) | Tacaribe virus (TCRV) | TEM | Spherical | 10 and 25 nm | Vero cells | Viral Inhibition Assay, S segment real time PCR, Post-infection treatment with Ag-NPs study | Inhibits early stage of viral replication | 25 μg/ml | [117] |
Chemical synthesis using chitosan as stabilizer | African swine fever virus (ASFV) | TEM, UV–Vis, | Spherical | 14 nm | Primary porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs) | Cell toxicity test, Antivirus activity | Strong antiviral activity | 0.78 ppm | [130] |
Chemical synthesis (coated PVP) | Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) | SEM, TEM | Spherical | 8–12 nm | A549 cells (a human alveolar type II-like epithelial cell lines) & HEp-2 Cell | qRT-PCR assays, Airway Obstruction analysis, ELISA, plaque assay | Interact with glycoproteins, prevent fusion | 50 µg/mL | [131] |
Chemical synthesis (curcumin modified AgNPs) | Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection | DLS, XPS, UV/vis, TEM, SEM, FTIR, zeta-sizer, | Spherical | 11.95 ± 0.23 nm | Hep-2 cells | Tissue culture infectious doses (TCID50) assay, Viral titer assay, Plaque assay, Indirect immunofluorescence assay, cytopathic effect analysis, RT-PCR analysis, | Inactivate virus, inhibits entry into host cell | [121] | |
Chemical synthesis (PVP coated) | Herpes simplex virus 2 | SEM, TEM | Spherical | 30–40 nm | Vero cells | MTT assay, Trypan blue assay, Viral suppression experiments, cytopathic effect analysis | Inhibits virus replication | 6.25- 100 μg/mL | [109] |
Chemical synthesis (PVP coated) | HIV-1 | SEM, TEM | Spherical | 30–50 nm | HeLa-CD4-LTR-b-gal cells | Virus adsorption assays, HIV-1 infectivity inhibition assays, Cell-based fusion assay, HIV-1 gp120/CD4 ELISA Time-of-addition experiments, Virucidal activity assay | Interact with gp120 protein, inhibits binding and fusion | 0.44 mg/mL (± 0.3) | [116] |
Chemical synthesis (PVP-coated) | White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) | TEM, FTIR, Zeta potential, UV–Vis | Spherical | 1-90 nm | Shrimp (P. vannamei) | Histologic analysis, qRT-PCR WSSV-diagnosis, WSSV challenge bioassay, | Interfere with the viral envelopes | 0.5–20 mg/mL | [132] |
Chemical synthesis method (chitosan coated AgNPs) | H1N1 influenza virus | TEM, SEM, UV–Vis | Spherical | – | MDCK cells (Madin-darby canine kidney cells) | Antiviral assay | Damage virus protein | 100 µg/mL | [123] |
Chemical synthesis using Graphene oxide | Feline Coronavirus (Fcov) | HR-TEM, FE-SEM, XRD, XPS, AFM, TGA, | Spherical | 5 and 25 nm | Felis catus whole fetus-4 (fcwf-4) cells | Tissue culture infectious dose (TCID) assay, Virus Inhibition Assay | Interferes with the lipid membrane of corona virus and ruptures it | 0.1 mg/mL | [105] |
Chemical synthesis using Graphene oxide | Infectious Bursal Disease Virus (IBDV) | HR-TEM, FE-SEM, XRD, XPS, AFM, TGA, | Spherical | 5 and 25 nm | DF-1 cells | Tissue culture infectious dose (TCID) assay, Virus Inhibition Assay | Interferes with the viral protein | 0.125 mg/mL | [105] |
Chemical synthesis (Magnetic hybrid colloids- AgNPs) | Bacteriophage-X174, Murine norovirus (MNV), Adeno virus serotype2(Adv2) | SEM, TEM, EDS, ESEM | Spherical | 7, 15, and 30 nm | - | Plaque assay, Real-time TaqMan PCR (RT-PCR) assays | Interact with viral protein, damage viral coating | 57.5-400 ppm | |
Electrochemical method | Poliovirus | FE-SEM, TEM, UV–Vis, EDX | Spherical | 4 to 9 nm | Human rhabdomyosarcoma (ATCC # CCL-136) cells | MTT assay antiviral evaluation | Inhibits the polio virus particles | 3.13 ppm | [134] |
Essential oil reduction method using Aquilaria sinensis essential oil (AsEO) | Dengue and Zika viruses | SEM, TEM, EDS, XRD FTIR, U-Vis | Spherical | 15 to 55 nm | Aedes albopictus | Histological studies | Severe destruction of midgut Aedes albopictus | 44.23 to 166 ppm | [111] |
Essential oil reduction method using Pogostemon cablin essential oil (PcEO) | Dengue and Zika viruses | SEM, TEM, EDS, XRD FTIR, U-Vis | Spherical | 16 to 87 nm, | Aedes albopictus | Histological studies | Damage the digestive system of Aedes albopictus | 32.49 to 90.05 ppm, | [111] |
Green synthesis using Andrographis paniculata (AP-AgNPs), Phyllanthus niruri (PN-AgNPs), Tinospora cordifolia (TC-AgNPs) | Chikungunya virus | UV–Vis, SEM, XRD, FTIR, DLS, zeta potential, | Spherical | AP-AgNPs-70– 95 nm, PN-AgNPs-70 to 120 nm, TC-AgNPs-50–70 nm | Vero cells | Antiviral assay, Cytotoxicity assay, cytopathic effect, MNTD determination | Antiviral | MNTD-AP-AgNPs- 31.25 µg/ml PN-AgNPs- 125 µg/ml TC-AgNPs- 250 µg/ml | [112] |
Green synthesis method using Cinnamomum cassia | H7N3 Influenza A Virus | UV–Vis, SEM, FTIR, | Spherical | 25 to 55 nm | Vero cells | Cytotoxicity Assay- MTT, cytopathic effect analysis, Infectivity Assay, | Interferes with the protein, Cytotoxic | 125 µg/ml | [135] |
Green synthesis using Ginseng root extract | Influenza A virus | UV–Vis, XRD, FTIR, HR-TEM | Spherical | 50 nm, 20 nm, and 2 nm | MDCK Cells | Antiviral assay- SRB assay (sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay) | Antiviral | 0.02 and 0.25 M | [136] |
Green synthesis using Lampranthus coccineus & Malephora lutea plant extract | HSV-1, HAV-10 virus & Coxsackie B4 virus | TEM, UV–Vis, FTIR | Spherical | 10.12 nm to 27.89 nm | VERO cells | MTT assay, Metabolomics profiling (UPLC-MS) & molecular docking | Binds to viral envelop and inhibits penetration, interact with viral genome | 5.13 µg/mL | [137] |
Green synthesis using Moringa oleifera seed extract | Dengue virus (DEN-2) | UV–Vis, SEM, XRD, FTIR, EXD, | Spherical | 100 nm | C6/36 and Vero cells | MTT, DEN-2 growth inhibition assays, Nanoparticle toxicity, plaque assay | Antiviral activity | 10.24ppmto 21.17 ppm | [110] |
Green synthesis using tannic acid | Herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) | STEM, DLS, UV–Vis, EDX | Spherical | 33 ± 7 nm | Mouse model | Flow Cytometry Phenotypic Analysis, Neutralization Assay, Quantitative Reverse Transcriptase-Polymerase Chain Reaction (qRT-PCR assays) | Act as bitter stimulant, increase immune cells, | 5 µg/mL | [138] |
Liquid-chemical synthesis technology | Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) | TEM | Spherical | 5–200 nm | K-HeLa cells | Cytotoxicity assay, Apoptosis analysis, Reactive Oxygen Species Assay, Virion-cell binding and viral entry assay, | Increase ROS, destroy | < 0.6 μg/ml | [139] |
Modified sonochemical reaction method | Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 | SEM, XPS, TGA | Spherical | 4 ± 1 nm | Vero African green monkey kidney epithelial cells | Cell Toxicity Assay (XTT-based colorimetric assay), HSV-1 in vitro Assays, plaque reduction assay, | Cytopathic effect, interact with viral glycoprotein | 200- 400 µg/mL | [119] |
Monodisperse silica core silver nanoaprticles (chemical method) | Influenza A virus (IFV-A) | TEM, SEM, XPS, | Spherical | 7–30 nm | MDCK | Plaque assay, real-time RT-PCR assay, ELISA, NA-Fluor Influenza Neuraminidase Assay, Flow cytometry analyses, hemagglutination assay | Interact with outer membrane of virus | - | [140] |
Oxidation–reduction reaction | A/Human/Hubei/3/2005 Influenza Virus (H3N2 IFV) | TEM | Spherical | 9.5 nm | MDCK cells | In vitro-MTT, hemagglutinin, flow cytometry, immunofluorescence | Damage the structure of virus, inhibit growth | ID50- 12.5 µg/mL | [118] |
Chemical synthesis | H1V1 influenza virus | TEM | Spherical | 5–20 nm | MDCK cells | Hemagglutination inhibition test, the embryo inoculation assay, Mosmann based MTT assay, flow cytometry assay | Ag + ion suppression respiration of pathogen, inhibitory action on virus | 50 µg/mL | [141] |
Turkevich method using aqueous trisodium citrate | HIV-1 pNL4.3-GFP + virus, HSV-1 and HSV-2 | EDAX, SEM, FTIR, UV–Vis | Spherical | 30–60 nm | 293 T cells (Human embryonic kidney), (HeLa cell (human cervical cancer cells), HeLa-CD4-CCR5-LTR-β-gal cells, and Vero E6 cells (African green monkey kidney cells) | Anti-HIV infection assays, Anti-HSV infection assay, cell proliferation (WST-1) assay | Inactivate virus | – | [142] |